Throat cancer

The cause of throat cancer, as with other cancers, is due to damage to cellular DNA. This results in uncontrolled growth of damaged cells, which leads to the formation of a cancer. The cancer can invade nearby tissues, or spread via the bloodstream or lymphatic system to other areas of the body.

The exact cause of throat cancers is not well known. However, certain risk factors are known to increase the risk of developing this condition.

Types

The type of cancer can be classified by the type of cells, the cancer develops in:

Squamous cell carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma originates in the squamous cells, which are flat cells that line the inside of the mouth, nose and throat. The vast majority of nasopharyngeal and oropharyngeal cancers are squamous cell carcinomas.

Adenocarcinoma

Adenocarcinoma is a rare type of cancer that develops in the glandular cells of the throat.

Sarcoma

Sarcomas are cancers of the body's connective tissue and are extremely rare in the throat. The connective tissue of the larynx is cartilage. The name for a cancer that originates in the cartilage is chondrosarcoma.

Lymphoma

Lymphomas are cancers of the lymph nodes. There are many lymph nodes in the neck and lymphomas can cause painless swelling of these lymph nodes.

Stages

Treatment outcomes can vary greatly, depending on the stage of the cancer. Cancer is staged according to the size and location of the primary cancer and whether it has spread to lymph nodes or organs in the body.

Stages of nasopharyngeal cancer

Stages of oropharyngeal cancer

Stages of laryngopharyngeal cancer

Signs and symptoms

Signs and symptoms of throat cancer may include:

• A sore throat;
• Cough;
• Pain or difficulty swallowing;
• Pain in the ear;
• Unexpected weight loss;
• A lump in the back of the mouth or throat, and;
• Bloody sputum.

Methods for diagnosis

Medical history and physical examination

Your doctor will ask you questions about your medical history, any symptoms you have and possible risk factors. If your doctor has any concerns, you'll be referred to an ear, nose and throat specialist for further examination, investigation and management.

Scans

Barium swallow

A barium swallow involves drinking a chalky substance that contains barium, followed by an X-ray or scan. This may be the first test performed if one of the symptoms is having trouble swallowing. The swallow can show a narrowing of the throat or a protrusion that are due to a mass in the throat.

Computerized tomography (CT) scan

A computerized tomography scan uses X-rays to develop a 3D image of the body. This type of scan can detect small cancers much more effectively. The scan may be used to identify the original site of the cancer and to establish the spread of the cancer within the head or neck area or to other more distant sites.

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

Magnetic resonance imaging is a 3D scan similar to CT, but uses magnetism instead of X-rays. An MRI scan is often performed when more detailed images of the cancer are required.

Positron emission tomography (PET)

Positron emission tomography requires an injection with a radioactive label, or tracer. When combined with a CT scan, it produces images that can help assess the size, location and spread of a cancer.

Procedures

Upper endoscopy

During an upper endoscopy, you will be sedated and a slender telescopic tube will be inserted into your nose and throat. A tissue biopsy may be performed during this procedure if an abnormal lesion is found.

Laryngoscopy

During a laryngoscopy, your voice box will be checked for abnormalities using a laryngoscope, a slender tube with an attached camera. The doctor will usually apply an anesthetic spray to numb your throat before the procedure.

Biopsy

A biopsy is a removal of a tissue sample for examination under a microscope. The biopsy is the only definite way of making a cancer diagnosis as it provides the most accurate analysis of the abnormal-looking cells.

Types of treatment

Surgery

The cancer and affected lymph nodes may be surgically removed. They are numerous different techniques for the surgical treatment of throat cancers, depending on the location, size and lymph nodes affected. Occasionally, reconstructive surgery may also be necessary to restore function and/or appearance, after the removal of the cancer. Your surgeon can help discuss surgical options with you. Surgery is often combined with adjuvant and/or neoadjuvant therapy for better outcomes.

Adjuvant therapy

Adjuvant therapy is given after surgery, with the aim of preventing the cancer from returning. It can take the form of radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy.

Neoadjuvant therapy

Like adjuvant therapy, neoadjuvant therapy also uses radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy, but is provided before surgery.

Chemotherapy

Chemotherapy works by attacking cancer cells and stopping their reproduction. Various medications are used, which are generally administered intravenously. They are often given in cycles, followed by rest periods, which help to reduce the toxic side effects of chemotherapy. Your doctor will monitor your dosage and treatment schedule to ensure optimal therapeutic dosage is administered, with minimum side effects.

Various medications are used in chemotherapy to treat cancer. 

Radiotherapy

In this type of therapy, focused X-rays from an external beam radiation source are applied to the area where the cancer was located. Radiotherapy helps to reduce the recurrence of cancers at their original site. It can occasionally be used on its own for the treatment of very small cancers. Commonly, it is combined with surgery as adjuvant and/or neoadjuvant therapy.

Multi-disciplinary treatment

Throat cancers are often treated by a group of health professionals including surgeons, oncologists (cancer specialists), radiation oncologists (radiation specialists), speech therapists, dieticians, psychologists and social workers. The team of health professionals help to prepare for treatment, coordinate therapies and assist in rehabilitation. They can be contacted for any assistance during the treatment process. They are likely to regularly review you in the years following your treatment to detect any cancer recurrence and assist you in your recovery.

Other therapies

Some people diagnosed with cancer seek out complementary and alternative therapies. None of these alternative therapies cure cancer, but some can help people feel better when used together with conventional medical treatment. It is important to discuss any treatments with your doctor before starting them.

Potential complications

Treatment side effects

Side effects associated with treatments include:

• Speech problems - radiotherapy and surgery can affect your ability to speak normally due to the damage they cause to the tissues supporting the voice box. Modulating the intensity of the treatment can reduce the damage to surrounding tissues;
• Tooth loss - radiotherapy can destroy the jawbone (osteoradionecrosis) if bad or loose teeth are present, so these need to be removed before using this type of therapy;
• Need for prostheses - in some cases, part of the jaw may need to be removed and replaced by a prosthetic. In extreme cases, feeding tubes may have to be used because swallowing is too difficult;
• Damage to salivary glands - radiotherapy can damage the salivary glands, reducing the production of saliva and causing dry mouth (xerostomia);
• Thyroid problems - radiotherapy can cause thyroid problems (hyperthyroidism or hypothyroidism) that require management with medication;
• Throat infection - chemotherapy and radiotherapy can increase the risk of developing a fungal throat infection, called thrush;
• Nausea, vomiting and fatigue - chemotherapy and radiotherapy can result in nausea, vomiting and fatigue. Whether or not the treatment makes you feel sick is not an indication of how well the treatment is working;
• Altered bowel habits - constipation or diarrhea can occur with chemotherapy;
• Joint and muscle pain - this may occur after a treatment session and can last a few days, and;
• Temporary hair loss - some types of chemotherapy result in hair loss on the head and body. It will grow back after treatment has ended.

Advanced throat cancer

Advanced throat cancer can spread throughout the body via the bloodstream and lymphatic system (metastasize).

Prognosis

The prognosis depends on the type and stage of cancer. For cancer of the laryngopharynx, the five-year survival rate is 65%, increasing to 72% for those who survive the first year and to 81% for those who survive five years.

Your doctor, who specializes in cancer treatment (oncologist), will inform you of the prognosis.

In general, cancers associated with HPV infection tend to have better survival rates.

It is important to remember survival rates are only an indication, and are based upon the averages of previously treated patients. It is not an absolute prognosis for an individual. It is often difficult to accurately predict an individual's cure or survival rate. Constant advances in treatment are continually improving these statistics.

Prevention

There is no way to prevent throat cancer, but you can reduce your risk by not smoking, minimizing your alcohol consumption and eating a healthy diet high in fruit and vegetables.