Male circumcision
What is male circumcision?
Circumcision is an elective surgical procedure performed on males. It is the practice of removing the foreskin from the male's penis. Circumcision is generally a safe procedure and complications are rare.
About 30% of males worldwide are circumcised. [1] [2] Circumcision rates vary widely between cultures. The common reasons given for circumcision are cultural, tribal and medical - Circumcision rates in the United States are around 65%. [3]
Circumcision, and particularly infant circumcision, is a controversial issue for many people. Public health authorities do not recommend routine circumcision of healthy males on medical grounds. [3] Their view is that the potential medical benefits of circumcision do not justify the potential risks of the procedure. However, there are respected opinions, most prominently the American Academy of Pediatrics, that suggest that the medical benefits of infant circumcision do outweigh its risks. Generally, circumcision is neither medically encouraged nor discouraged; the decision is left to the individual or his parents.
Historically, circumcision rates in the US and the United Kingdom started rising near the end of the 19th century, primarily for reasons of hygiene. It should be noted that, at the time, 'hygiene' also meant suppressing sexual activity (including masturbation), as it was considered unhealthy and shameful.
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Foreskin
The retractable fold of skin that covers and protects the tip of the penis.
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Hygiene
The practice of health maintenance and the prevention of infection, disease and the spread of disease.
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Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalence safety and acceptability. World Health Organisation. Accessed 10 March 2015 from
External link
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Wilcken A. Keil T. and Dick B. (2010) Traditional male circumcision in eastern and southern Africa: a systematic review of prevalence and complications. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 88:907–914.
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Circumcision of infant males (2010). Royal Australasian College of Physicians. Accessed 8 September 2014 from
External link
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Circumcision of infant males (2010). Royal Australasian College of Physicians. Accessed 8 September 2014 from
External link
Reasons for performing circumcision
Religious and cultural reasons
In a number of societies across the globe, circumcision is an accepted cultural practice, for reasons of religion, tradition or aesthetic preference.
Circumcision forms part of the practices of several faiths, most notably Islam and Judaism. Several ethnic groups, particularly in parts of Africa, also practice ritual male circumcision.
Medical
The common medical reason for considering circumcision is the potential prevention of infections, particularly sexually-transmitted infections (STIs). As discussed later, this does not replace the need for practicing safe sex.
In certain rare conditions, such as pathological phimosis and recurring urinary tract infections (in children and adults), circumcision is recommended as a surgical treatment for the existing condition.
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Pathological phimosis
Inability to retract the foreskin behind the head of the penis due to the narrowing of the opening as a result of an infection, inflammation or scarring.
The procedure
Circumcision is performed by doctors as well as by traditional practitioners. When performed by doctors, it is done under sterile conditions under a local or general anesthetic. Usually, if it is performed in the first few days of life, a local anesthetic is used. If it is performed later, usually after six months of age, a general anesthetic is used.
The doctor separates the foreskin from the penis and cuts away the foreskin. After the foreskin is removed, the doctor will dress the wound. Infant circumcision takes about 10 to 15 minutes, while adult circumcision may take up to an hour.
In the days after the procedure is completed, the penis is washed, cleaned and lubricated until the incision site heals completely. Healing usually takes up to a week.
In a circumcised penis, the foreskin is removed, exposing the glans.
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Foreskin
The retractable fold of skin that covers and protects the tip of the penis.
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General anesthetic
An anesthetic given to a person to put them to sleep while having an operation or medical procedure. Afterwards, the person regains consciousness and usually has no memory of the procedure. A general anesthetic is given in hospital by a specialist called an anesthetist.
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Glans
The sensitive, round structure at the end of the penis or clitoris.
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Local anesthetic
A type of medication that, when administered to an area, creates a localized loss of sensation by blocking nerve activity.
Benefits of circumcision
Studies have suggested medical benefits for circumcision. Being circumcised may:
- Reduce the incidence of urinary tract infections, particularly during the first year of life;
- Reduce the risk of genital ulcers;
- In regions with a high prevalence of HIV, it may reduce the risk of men acquiring the infection from vaginal sex;
- Reduce the risk of contracting human papillomavirus (HPV) infection;
- Reduce the chance of HPV infection and cervical cancer for the sexual partners of circumcised men;
- Possibly reduce the rate of other STIs, such as herpes viruses;
- May reduce the risk of inflammation of the penis glans, and;
- Reduce the risk of penile cancer.
It should be noted, however, that:
- Many of the abovementioned problems are not common ones. It is estimated that it takes 111 circumcisions to prevent a single case of urinary tract infection (which is usually not a serious illness) [4] [5 ] and between 909 and 322,000 circumcisions to prevent a single case of penile cancer; [5]
- Circumcision does not entirely prevent infections. Circumcised men are still at risk of catching sexually-transmitted diseases such as HIV/AIDS unless they practice safe sex, and;
- The conclusions of the studies suggesting a beneficial link between circumcision and lowered rates of sexually-transmitted infections have been challenged. Safe-sex measures are still necessary.
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Glans
The sensitive, round structure at the end of the penis or clitoris.
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Human papillomavirus
A virus with many subtypes that cause warts, including common warts of the hands and feet, and genital warts. Some strains of HPV cause cervical cancer.
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Infection
Entry into the body of microorganisms that can reproduce and cause disease.
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Ulcers
An open sore in the skin or mucous membranes such as those of the stomach lining, intestine or mouth.
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Van Howe R.S. (2013) Sexually transmitted infections and male circumcision: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ISRN Urology 2013 ID 109846.
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Frisch M. Aigrain Y. Barauskas V. et al. (2013) Cultural bias in the AAP’s 2012 technical report and policy statement on male circumcision. Pediatrics 2012:796-800.
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Frisch M. Aigrain Y. Barauskas V. et al. (2013) Cultural bias in the AAP’s 2012 technical report and policy statement on male circumcision. Pediatrics 2012:796-800.
Risks and disadvantages of circumcision
Circumcision is a surgical procedure and carries with it the risks of surgery, including:
- Pain;
- Bleeding;
- Removing too much or too little of the foreskin;
- Risk of reactions to anesthetics used;
- Risk of infection, and;
- Risk of complications (see below).
In addition, there are disadvantages to removing the foreskin. Disadvantages may include the following:
- Surgical removal of a healthy body part;
- Circumcision is mostly an irreversible decision. If a change of heart occurs later, the only option is to undergo foreskin restoration, a costly and cumbersome process, and;
- Potential complications of the procedure (see below).
It is not yet clear whether circumcision lessens sexual function and sexual pleasure for men and their partners. The foreskin is a sensitive area with many nerve endings and it does function as a natural lubricant during sexual intercourse. However, men who had been circumcised in adulthood often report that their sexual pleasure was not reduced after circumcision.
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Foreskin
The retractable fold of skin that covers and protects the tip of the penis.
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Infection
Entry into the body of microorganisms that can reproduce and cause disease.
Potential complications
Only 0.2-0.6% of surgically-performed circumcisions result in complications. [1] [6] The rate is higher for circumcisions not performed by doctors.
Complications of a circumcision performed by medical professionals are usually mild. In rare cases, severe complications can cause permanent damage to the penis.
Complications of circumcision can include:
- Infection;
- Pain;
- Extensive bleeding;
- Reduced sensitivity of the penis;
- Damage to the penis, particularly the glans, and;
- Scarring.
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Glans
The sensitive, round structure at the end of the penis or clitoris.
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Infection
Entry into the body of microorganisms that can reproduce and cause disease.
X
Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalence safety and acceptability. World Health Organisation. Accessed 10 March 2015 from
External link
X
Christakis D.A. Harvey E. Zerr D.M. et al. (2000) A trade-off analysis of routine newborn circumcision. Pediatrics 105:246–249.
Infant and adult circumcision
Most circumcisions are performed on infants during their first days of life. Therefore, it is most often up to the parents to decide whether their child should undergo circumcision. In doing so, parents will consider their religious, societal and ethical values as well as the perceived medical benefits and disadvantages.
Some parents may decide to circumcise based on their religious and societal convictions, or in order to provide their son with some possible protection against STIs and future urinary tract infections. Other parents may decide not to have their son circumcised, as they will feel it is an unnecessary medical intervention, will wish to spare their son from the pain and possible trauma associated with the procedure, or wish that it should not be their responsibility to decide on an irreversible procedure for their infant son, who is years away from becoming sexually active.
References
- Male circumcision: global trends and determinants of prevalence safety and acceptability. World Health Organisation. Accessed 10 March 2015 from link here
- Wilcken A. Keil T. and Dick B. (2010) Traditional male circumcision in eastern and southern Africa: a systematic review of prevalence and complications. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 88:907–914.
- Circumcision of infant males (2010). Royal Australasian College of Physicians. Accessed 8 September 2014 from link here
- Van Howe R.S. (2013) Sexually transmitted infections and male circumcision: a systematic review and meta-analysis. ISRN Urology 2013 ID 109846.
- Frisch M. Aigrain Y. Barauskas V. et al. (2013) Cultural bias in the AAP’s 2012 technical report and policy statement on male circumcision. Pediatrics 2012:796-800.
- Christakis D.A. Harvey E. Zerr D.M. et al. (2000) A trade-off analysis of routine newborn circumcision. Pediatrics 105:246–249.
- Bailey R.C. Moses S. Parker C.B. et al. (2007). Male circumcision for HIV prevention in young men in Kisumu Kenya: a randomised controlled trial. The Lancet 369: 643656.
- Blank S. Brady M. Buerk E. et al. (2012). Circumcision Policy Statement. Pediatrics 130: 585586.
- Board A.D.A.M.E. (2013). Circumcision. PubMed Health. Accessed from link here
- Choices N.H.S. (2014 October 1). Circumcision - NHS Choices. Accessed 8 September 2014 from link here
- Christakis D.A. Harvey E. Zerr D.M. et al. (2000). A trade-off analysis of routine newborn circumcision. Pediatrics 105: 246249.
- Circumcision. Text. Accessed 8 September 2014 from link here
- Circumcision | Johns Hopkins Medicine Health Library. Accessed 9 September 2014 from link here
- Circumcision in baby boys. Accessed 8 September 2014 from link here
- Circumcision: MedlinePlus Medical Encyclopedia. Accessed 8 September 2014 from link here
- Frisch M. Aigrain Y. Barauskas V. et al. (2013). Cultural Bias in the AAPs 2012 Technical Report and Policy Statement on Male Circumcision. Pediatrics peds.20122896.
- HIV and Male Circumcision | Gateway to Health Communication | CDC. Accessed 9 September 2014 from link here
- Larke N. Thomas S.L. Silva I. dos S. et al. (2011). Male Circumcision and Human Papillomavirus Infection in Men: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Infectious Diseases 204: 13751390.
- Montini G. Tullus K. & Hewitt I. (2011). Febrile Urinary Tract Infections in Children. New England Journal of Medicine 365: 239250.
- Perera C.L. Bridgewater F.H.G. Thavaneswaran P. et al. (2010). Safety and Efficacy of Nontherapeutic Male Circumcision: A Systematic Review. Annals of Family Medicine 8: 6472.
- Phimosis and Paraphimosis Guide: Causes Symptoms and Treatment Options. Accessed 9 September 2014 from link here
- Puri P. Kumar J. & Ramesh V. (2010). Circumcision. Indian Journal of Sexually Transmitted Diseases 31: 6974.
- Royal Australasian College of Physicians. (2010). Circumcision of Infant Males.
- The Cochrane Collaboration (ed.). (1996). Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews: Reviews. Chichester UK: John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Accessed from link here
- Tobian A.A.R. & Gray R.H. (2011). The Medical Benefits of Male Circumcision. JAMA?: the journal of the American Medical Association 306: 14791480.
- Tobian A.A.R. Serwadda D. Quinn T.C. et al. (2009). Male Circumcision for the Prevention of HSV-2 and HPV Infections and Syphilis. New England Journal of Medicine 360: 12981309.
- Van Howe R.S. (2013). Sexually Transmitted Infections and Male Circumcision: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. ISRN Urology 2013. Accessed from link here
- WHO | Male circumcision for HIV prevention. WHO. Accessed 8 September 2014 from link here
- Wilcken A. Keil T. & Dick B. (2010). Traditional male circumcision in eastern and southern Africa: a systematic review of prevalence and complications. Bulletin of the World Health Organization 88: 907914.
8 Most frequently asked questions (FAQs)
What is male circumcision? Circumcision is an elective surgical procedure performed on males. It is the practice of removing the foreskin from the male's penis. Circumcision can be performed on males of any age. Although infant circumcisions is a controversial issue for many people. most circumcisions are commonly performed on infants in the first days of life. How common is circumcision? About 30% of males worldwide are circumcised. In Australia, circumcision rates are between 10-20%. In the United States, the figure is about 65%. Who performs circumcisions? Circumcision is performed globally by medical professionals. In some cultures, traditional practitioners also perform circumcisions. How is circumcision performed? The patient is placed under a local or general anesthetic. Usually, if it is performed in the first few days of life, a local anesthetic is used. If it is performed later, usually after 6 months of age, a general anesthetic is used. The doctor separates the foreskin from the penis and cuts away the foreskin. After the foreskin is removed, the doctor will dress the wound. Infant circumcision takes about 10 to 15 minutes, while adult circumcision may take up to an hour. In the days after the procedure is completed, the penis is washed, cleaned and lubricated until the incision site heals completely. Healing usually takes up to a week. Circumcision is generally a safe procedure. Complications of a circumcision performed by medical professionals are rare (0.2-0.6%) and usually mild. Is circumcision recommended on a medical basis? Circumcision, and particularly infant circumcision, is a controversial issue for many people. Generally, circumcision is neither medically encouraged nor discouraged; the decision is left to the individual or his parents.
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